Category Archives: Natural Healing

Story of Shiva & his Ganja

In the quiet stillness of Mount Kailash, Shiva sat in deep meditation. His eyes half-closed, his breath slow and steady, he let the universe swirl around him like a river. Time did not exist for the god of destruction; moments were infinite, and every inhale connected him to the essence of all that is.

But one day, a gentle breeze carried the scent of something wild and earthy. Shiva opened his eyes and followed it, curious. Beneath a tall, ancient tree, he found a plant with vibrant green leaves that seemed to hum with life. He plucked a leaf, rolled it between his fingers, and smiled—a knowing smile, as though recognizing an old friend. This was no ordinary plant; it was a gift of the earth herself, born to calm storms and awaken the soul.

As Shiva lit the leaf, he felt its smoke rise into his lungs, spreading like a warm river of peace. His mind expanded, his body softened, and the weight of the cosmos lifted from his shoulders. In that moment, he felt deeply connected—not only to the universe but to the beauty and simplicity of life itself. The plant brought him clarity, a profound stillness beyond thought and words. It wasn’t an escape but an opening, a doorway into the infinite.

From that day on, Shiva embraced the plant as a companion during his meditations. He loved it not for indulgence but for the way it aligned his body and spirit, helping him dance between the realms of existence and nothingness. It reminded him of his true nature—wild, free, and unshackled by time.

The gods watched in awe, puzzled by Shiva’s fondness for this humble plant. Some whispered that it was strange for a deity to love such earthly things. But Shiva only laughed, the kind of deep, booming laugh that echoes across creation.

“Ganja,” he said, “is a gift for those who seek peace within chaos. It quiets the noise of the world and awakens the truth hidden in the heart.”

And so, Shiva became the protector of the sacred plant, sharing it with wandering sadhus and seekers of the soul. To this day, in the forests and mountains, in the hearts of those who seek, Shiva’s breath lingers in every curl of smoke—a reminder that even the simplest things can carry the universe within them.

Shiva Sadhu Smoking Ganja

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Pliny the Younger describes the Early Christians as Vegetarian

In his letter to Emperor Trajan (Epistle 10.96), Pliny mentions that Christians would “assemble again to partake of food—but ordinary and innocent food.”

Pliny the Younger is describing the practices of early Christians. He notes that they customarily met before dawn to sing hymns to Christ and bound themselves by oath to abstain from crimes such as fraud, theft, and adultery. After these gatherings, they would “reassemble to partake of food—but food of an ordinary and innocent kind.”

Many scholars interpret Pliny’s description of the Christians’ meals as potentially vegetarian. In Pliny the Younger’s Letter 10.96, he writes to Emperor Trajan describing the Christians, stating that they would “reassemble to partake of food—but food of an ordinary and innocent kind” (cibum… promiscuum tamen et innoxium).

While Pliny does not explicitly state the type of food consumed, the phrase “innocent kind” has led some scholars to speculate that it might refer to vegetarian meals. This interpretation arises from the possibility that early Christian communities, influenced by Jewish dietary laws or ascetic traditions, may have avoided meat due to ethical, ritualistic, or symbolic reasons.

However, this view is debated. Other scholars argue that “ordinary and innocent” likely refers to simple, unadulterated food and not necessarily vegetarianism. Pliny’s goal in describing the Christians’ practices was to refute rumors of their alleged immoral feasts, such as cannibalism.

Some scholars suggest that the term “innocent” (innoxium) could imply a vegetarian diet, reflecting a commitment to non-violence and purity. This perspective is informed by the fact that certain religious groups in antiquity, such as the Pythagoreans, practiced vegetarianism for ethical reasons.

Pliny the Younger’s observation of early Christians abstaining from animal sacrifices and consuming a simple, “ordinary and innocent” meal aligns with historical evidence that the earliest followers of Jesus, including the Ebionites and Nazoreans, practiced vegetarianism. These groups not only rejected animal sacrifices but also upheld a vegetarian Love Feast or Agape Meal, reflecting their commitment to compassion, purity, and the original teachings of Jesus.

Early Christian Vegetarian Agape Love Feast

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Wheels of Life by Anodea Judith (Book Review)

Anodea Judith’s Wheels of Life is an insightful and thorough exploration of the chakra system, blending ancient wisdom with modern psychology, metaphysics, and spiritual philosophy. As one of the most comprehensive books on the subject, it serves as both an introduction for beginners and a valuable resource for those with more experience in energy work.

Judith meticulously examines the seven main chakras, detailing their physical, emotional, and spiritual significance. She explains how imbalances in these energy centers can manifest in various aspects of life, offering practical exercises, meditations, and visualizations to help readers restore harmony. Her approach is both scientific and mystical, making the book accessible to a broad audience—from those interested in yoga and meditation to individuals exploring holistic healing.

One of the book’s greatest strengths is its integration of psychological insights with spiritual concepts. Judith connects chakra imbalances to emotional and behavioral patterns, drawing from Jungian psychology and personal development theories. This holistic approach makes Wheels of Life not just a guide to chakras but also a roadmap for self-discovery and transformation.

While deeply informative, the book’s depth and detail may feel overwhelming to some readers, particularly those new to the subject. However, Judith’s clear writing and structured presentation make the information digestible, even when covering complex topics.

Overall, Wheels of Life is a must-read for anyone interested in energy healing, personal growth, or spiritual awakening. Its blend of wisdom, practical exercises, and insightful analysis makes it one of the most definitive books on the chakra system.

Buy this book directly from me on the book selling platform Pango Books.

Wheel of Life – Anodea Judith

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Dhanvantari Diety of Healing

Dhanvantari is a revered deity in the Vedic tradition and Hinduism, known as the God of Ayurveda and the divine physician. He is considered an incarnation of Lord Vishnu, emerging from the churning of the ocean of milk (Samudra Manthan), holding the pot of amrita (the nectar of immortality). His appearance is symbolic of health, healing, and longevity.

Dhanvantari is often depicted with four hands, carrying a pot of amrita, a leech, a conch shell, and a discus (chakra), symbolizing his association with medicine, healing, and divine powers.

He is worshipped as the patron of medicine and health, and practitioners of Ayurveda revere him as their guiding deity. His blessings are invoked for physical and spiritual well-being, and his birthday is celebrated as Dhanteras, a day during the festival of Diwali dedicated to health and prosperity.

In essence, Dhanvantari represents the divine connection between spirituality, medicine, and the preservation of life.

Sri Dhanvantari

One of the most popular mantras dedicated to Lord Dhanvantari is used to invoke his blessings for healing and well-being. It is known as the Dhanvantari Mantra:

Dhanvantari Mantra:

ॐ शङ्खं चक्रं जलौकां दधदमृतघटं चारुदोर्भिः सुशोभं। सर्वामयघ्रं चिन्त्यं धृतमणिविभूषं धवन्तरिं दीव्याम्॥

Om Shankham Chakram Jalaukam Dadhatamrita-Ghatam Charu-Dorbhih Sushobham Sarvāmaya-Ghram Chintyam Dhr̥ta-Mani-Vibhūṣam Dhanvantarim Divyam.

Translation:

“I bow to Lord Dhanvantari, who holds a conch, discus, leech, and the nectar of immortality in his graceful hands. His presence removes all ailments and grants health, vitality, and longevity.”

Short Healing Mantra:

For simplicity, many also chant:

ॐ श्री धन्वन्तरये नमः
Om Shree Dhanvantariye Namaha

Purpose of Chanting:

  • To seek health, healing, and protection from diseases.
  • To enhance vitality and energy.
  • To connect with the divine energy of Ayurveda and holistic healing.

Regular chanting of these mantras is believed to promote physical and spiritual well-being.

Healing God : Sri Dhanvantari

The Case for Jesus and Early Christian Vegetarianism

Dear friends, today I invite you to reflect on evidence that has been largely overlooked but deserves our serious consideration: the possibility that Jesus and the earliest Christians lived a vegetarian lifestyle. This is not just an idea born out of modern concerns but a perspective deeply rooted in ancient texts, early Christian traditions, and historical records.

First, let us begin with the figure of John the Baptist, a man revered as the forerunner of Christ. Traditionally, John is said to have eaten locusts and wild honey, but alternative translations and ancient texts like the Gospel of the Ebionites suggest that “locusts” may have been mistranslated, and he likely ate “honey cakes” or manna, both vegetarian foods. Could this indicate a broader ethos of compassion and simplicity, reflective of a plant-based diet?

Consider also James the Just, the brother of Jesus and a key leader of the early Christian community. Historical accounts, including those by Hegesippus, describe James as a Nazarite, a man who abstained from meat and alcohol. As Jesus’ closest companion, wouldn’t James have exemplified his brother’s teachings? Scholars like Robert Eisenman suggest that James’ vegetarianism reflects the values of the original Jesus movement.

Furthermore, early Christian texts such as the Clementine Homilies advocate for abstaining from meat, aligning with the belief that humanity was created to live in harmony with all creatures. These writings reveal that early Christian communities may have viewed vegetarianism not just as a dietary choice but as a moral imperative, integral to living a life of love, mercy, and nonviolence—the very heart of Jesus’ teachings.

Finally, let us look to the Ebionites, an early Jewish-Christian sect who followed Jesus’ teachings and practiced vegetarianism. Though dismissed by later church orthodoxy, their practices and beliefs offer a glimpse into the original teachings of Christ. Alongside them, the Mandaeans and other ancient sects reveal that vegetarianism was not just an anomaly but a recurring theme among early spiritual movements.

Friends, this is not a call to rewrite scripture but to recognize the undeniable evidence before us—evidence that challenges us to reevaluate our understanding of Jesus’ teachings and the practices of his earliest followers. It reminds us to approach history with humility and a willingness to learn. Whether or not we adopt these practices ourselves, let us honor the compassion and respect for life that these traditions embody, for they are timeless truths deeply aligned with the spirit of Christ.

Amen.

Yeshua as an Ebionite Nazarene vegetarian prophet and messiah, embodying compassion and harmony with nature.

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Faith Can Move Mountains (Medley Cover) by Sakshi Zion (The Twinkle Brothers, Peter Broggs & Jah Levi)

Faith Can Move Mountains” is a powerful cover medley performed by Sakshi Zion, seamlessly blending the reggae classics of Twinkle Brothers, Peter Broggs, and Jah Levi into a soulful and uplifting tribute to the strength of faith.

Faith Can Move Mountains – Sakshi Zion

The medley begins with the spiritual resonance of Twinkle Brothers’ harmonies, bringing a deep, rooted sound of hope. As the tempo picks up, the medley flows into Peter Broggs’ stirring lyrics of resilience, building a rhythm that echoes with conviction. The final section brings Jah Levi’s transcendental energy, creating a euphoric sense of overcoming life’s challenges.

Sakshi Zion’s emotive vocals carry each song with clarity, offering a harmonious fusion of roots, reggae, and gospel influences, delivering a message that truly “faith can move mountains.” The medley encapsulates the power of music to inspire, uplift, and bring people together in unity and strength. This performance was part of the Sunday Service at New Thought Center of Hawaii.

Visionary Rasta Inspired Art

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Amba Bhavani Kirtan (Jaya Jagadambe) by Sakshi Zion

Sakshi Zion singing the devotional chant to the Divine Mother for the Sunday Service at New Thought Center of Hawaii. Amba Bhavani means Mother full of Love & Jaya Jagadambe meaning Victory to the Mother of the Universe.

Amba Bhavani Kirtan by Sakshi Zion

The chant “Amba Bhavani Jaya Jagadambe” is a devotional hymn to the Divine Mother, often associated with Durga, Kali, or other forms of Shakti. This chant invokes the Divine Feminine as Amba Bhavani (Mother Bhavani, the sustainer of existence) and Jagadambe (Mother of the Universe), celebrating her victory and nurturing presence.

A literal translation of the chant is:

Amba: Mother
Bhavani: The consort of Lord Bhava (Shiva) or the one who gives existence
Jaya: Victory or glory
Jagadambe: Mother of the Universe

Thus, the chant can be translated as:
“Glory to Mother Bhavani, Victory to the Mother of the Universe.”

For initiates on the spiritual path, this chant holds layers of symbolic and mystical meaning:

Amba Bhavani represents the Divine Feminine as the force of creation, nurturing, and sustenance. Chanting her name calls forth the primal energy (Shakti) within oneself, awakening the Kundalini.

Jaya signifies triumph over the ego and ignorance, urging the aspirant to seek victory over the inner battles that veil self-realization.

Jagadambe acknowledges the universality of the Divine Mother, reminding the initiate that all beings and elements of creation are manifestations of her energy.


By chanting these sacred names, the aspirant aligns their inner being with the cosmic rhythm, invoking divine grace for transformation, protection, and spiritual liberation.

Jagadambe (Mother of the Universe)

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The Lord’s Prayer in Aramaic

The Lord’s Prayer translation from Aramaic (the language of Jesus)

The Aramaic version of the Lord’s Prayer is considered closer to how Jesus might have spoken it, as he likely used Aramaic, the language of his time and region. Here is an Aramaic version of the prayer and a transliteration, followed by a line-by-line Gnostic commentary:

The Lord’s Prayer in Aramaic

Text:

Abwoon d’bashmaya
Nethqadash shmakh
Teytey malkuthakh
Nehwey sebyanach aykanna d’bwashmaya aph b’arha
Hawvlan lachma d’sunqanan yaomana
Washboqlan khaubayn aykana daph khnan shbwoqan l’khayyabayn
Wela tahlan l’nesyuna
Ela patzan min bisha
Metol dilakhie malkutha wahayla wateshbukhta l’ahlam almin, ameyn.

Translation:

Our Father, who art in heaven,
Hallowed be Thy Name.
Thy Kingdom come,
Thy Will be done,
on Earth as it is in Heaven.
Give us this day our daily bread,
And forgive us our trespasses,
as we forgive those who trespass against us.
And lead us not into temptation,
but deliver us from evil.
For Thine is the Kingdom, and the power, and the glory, forever and ever. Amen.


Gnostic Commentary on the Aramaic Prayer

  1. “Abwoon d’bashmaya” – “Our Father, who art in heaven”
    The word “Abwoon” can be broken down as “Abba” (Father) and “Woon” (source or womb). This addresses the Divine as both a Father and the Source of all life, embracing the masculine and feminine. In Gnostic spirituality, this is a recognition of the Divine Pleroma, the Fullness where masculine and feminine principles exist in harmony and unity beyond the confines of duality.
  2. “Nethqadash shmakh” – “Hallowed be Thy Name”
    The idea of “hallowing” or making sacred the Divine Name suggests an acknowledgment of an ineffable, transcendent reality. In Gnostic thought, this Divine Name represents the indescribable essence of the Source beyond all conceptions. Naming it is not to limit it but to celebrate its mystery, as in Gnosticism, the ultimate Divine reality is unknowable and beyond ordinary perception.
  3. “Teytey malkuthakh” – “Thy Kingdom come”
    The “Kingdom” is often interpreted in Gnosticism as the Divine Spark within each person. This line expresses a call for the inner Divine presence (often symbolized by Sophia, wisdom) to awaken within. It is a reminder that we, too, are part of the spiritual realm, and the Kingdom of Heaven is within us.
  4. “Nehwey sebyanach aykanna d’bwashmaya aph b’arha” – “Thy Will be done on Earth as it is in Heaven”
    This line suggests that the harmony of the spiritual realms should be reflected on Earth. Gnostics believe the material world is a shadow of the Divine, a lesser emanation often seen as a place of illusion. To bring Heaven to Earth is to awaken to the Divine truth, transcending the limitations of material existence and experiencing spiritual unity.
  5. “Hawvlan lachma d’sunqanan yaomana” – “Give us this day our daily bread”
    While traditionally seen as a request for sustenance, this “bread” in Gnostic terms might be interpreted as the “bread of wisdom” or spiritual nourishment. Here, the prayer is for the inner sustenance of knowledge (gnosis), which feeds the soul rather than the body, enabling one to transcend the material and awaken to inner truths.
  6. “Washboqlan khaubayn aykana daph khnan shbwoqan l’khayyabayn” – “Forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive those who trespass against us”
    Forgiveness, in Gnostic thought, is an act of liberating oneself from the chains of the Demiurge, the creator of this imperfect material world. To forgive is to release karmic entanglements and to free oneself and others from the illusions of separateness and judgment. This mutual forgiveness clears the way for spiritual ascent.
  7. “Wela tahlan l’nesyuna” – “And lead us not into temptation”
    In Gnosticism, “temptation” refers to the allure of the material world, which is filled with distractions that keep us from spiritual awakening. This prayer is a request for assistance in resisting attachment to illusionary pleasures and remaining focused on the journey to spiritual enlightenment.
  8. “Ela patzan min bisha” – “But deliver us from evil”
    Gnosticism often interprets “evil” as ignorance, particularly ignorance of the Divine Spark within. Here, the plea is to be freed from ignorance and falsehood, breaking the chains of the Demiurge’s world and moving toward truth, understanding, and gnosis.
  9. “Metol dilakhie malkutha wahayla wateshbukhta l’ahlam almin, ameyn” – “For Thine is the Kingdom, and the power, and the glory, forever and ever. Amen.”
    This final line is a declaration of the Divine Fullness. The Kingdom, power, and glory are inherent in the Source, the Pleroma, beyond the limited physical reality. This is a call to align with that boundless reality and affirm our connection with it eternally.

In Gnostic interpretation, the Lord’s Prayer is not merely a plea for guidance and protection but a roadmap for returning to the Divine Source. Each line reflects the journey from the confines of earthly existence, through understanding, forgiveness, and transcendence, toward a direct experience of the Divine unity within.

🕊️🕊️🕊️

Here’s a comparison of this Aramaic-inspired translation of the Lord’s Prayer with the traditional English version. This translation emphasizes the unity and cosmic nature of the Divine, aligning with some Gnostic and mystical interpretations. Each line in this modern version has subtle differences that deepen its spiritual focus.


  1. “Our Father, who art in heaven”
    Modern Translation: “O Birther! Father-Mother of the Cosmos”
  • Comparison: This line expands the Divine to a nurturing, universal Creator, embracing both masculine and feminine qualities, rather than a paternal figure alone.
  1. “Hallowed be Thy Name”
    Modern Translation: “Focus your light within us—make it useful.”
  • Comparison: Instead of simply revering the Divine Name, this line calls for an inward illumination that is purposeful. It suggests that the sacred should manifest practically through us.
  1. “Thy Kingdom come”
    Modern Translation: “Create your reign of unity now.”
  • Comparison: Here, the “Kingdom” is seen as a unifying force in the present moment, rather than a future divine realm. It emphasizes an immediate experience of unity.
  1. “Thy Will be done, on Earth as it is in Heaven”
    Modern Translation: “Your one desire then acts with ours, as in all light, so in all forms.”
  • Comparison: This line suggests a harmonious alignment between divine and human will, reflecting a non-dual understanding where Divine will is expressed through all forms of existence.
  1. “Give us this day our daily bread”
    Modern Translation: “Grant what we need each day in bread and insight.”
  • Comparison: This version adds “insight” alongside bread, merging physical sustenance with spiritual wisdom, highlighting that we need both to thrive.
  1. “And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive those who trespass against us”
    Modern Translation: “Loose the cords of mistakes binding us, as we release the strands we hold of others’ guilt.”
  • Comparison: Rather than a traditional view of “sin,” this line refers to “cords of mistakes,” suggesting that forgiveness is a process of untangling and releasing mutual guilt, fostering liberation.
  1. “And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil”
    Modern Translation: “Don’t let surface things delude us, but free us from what holds us back.”
  • Comparison: Instead of “temptation” and “evil,” this line speaks of delusion and inner limitations. It’s a request to stay centered and not be led astray by illusions.
  1. “For Thine is the Kingdom, and the power, and the glory, forever and ever”
    Modern Translation: “From you is born all ruling will, the power and the life to do, the song that beautifies all, from age to age it renews.”
  • Comparison: This line describes the Divine as the source of all purpose and beauty that sustains the cosmos. It’s less about a sovereign kingdom and more about a creative, renewing force that encompasses life itself.
  1. “Amen”
    Modern Translation: “Truly—power to these statements—may they be the ground from which all my actions grow: Amen.”
  • Comparison: This final line adds a personal intention for these words to ground one’s actions, implying a transformative commitment rather than a simple affirmation.

Summary

This modern translation reinterprets the Lord’s Prayer as a cosmic, inward journey rather than a traditional petition to a distant deity. It emphasizes unity, personal responsibility, forgiveness as liberation, and spiritual growth. Instead of focusing on divine intervention, it calls for inner alignment with the Divine presence and power already within us. This aligns well with mystical and Gnostic perspectives, viewing the prayer as an invocation for spiritual awakening and empowerment.

Nazorean Christ

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Vegetarian Lifestyle of the Nazoreans

The vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans has been a longstanding topic of debate among religious scholars. While the practice of not consuming animal products has been maintained for more than two thousand years, there is a general lack of consensus regarding its origin and development over time. This paper will explore the various theories that have been suggested by scholars regarding the vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans. Additionally, the most current peer-reviewed studies on the topic are analyzed in order to bring attention to both the complexities and benefits associated with the practice.

The first and most prominent theory regarding the origin of Nazorean vegetarianism dates back to ancient Judaism. This line of argument claims that Moses and the ancient Israelites, who were vegan by choice, inspired the Nazoreans and their choice to abstain from animal products. Other historical accounts suggest that the vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans was adopted from the Essenes, a Jewish sect known for their asceticism and dietary restrictions. While these theories are all viable options for consideration, more recent scholarship has focused on the ritual practices of the Nazoreans as an indication of their adherence to the vegetarian lifestyle.

Peer-reviewed studies have provided substantive evidence indicating that the vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans was related to a variety of rituals and ceremonies, including seasonal feasts and special occasions. For instance, one study found that during the Egyptian festivals of Pascha and Unleavened Bread, all animal products were abstained from and replaced with plant-based alternatives in celebration. During these times, the consumption of animal products was thought to be both a violation of the Nazoreans’ faith and an act of impurity. Scholars believe that this ritual abstinence provided an impetus for the development and maintenance of the Nazorean vegetarian lifestyle.

In addition to this ritualistic motivation, contemporary scholars have suggested that the provision of animal-free food was motivated by both ethical and health-related considerations. Existing evidence suggests that vegetarian diets positively benefit both emotions and physical health, and it is possible that the Nazoreans valued these dietary considerations. Furthermore, it has been argued that the features of the Nazorean diet, such as its inclusion of vegetables, legumes, and fruits, may have been seen as a means to promote harmony and balance within the community.

In conclusion, the vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans is a complex phenomenon that has been the subject of numerous scholarly debates for more than two thousand years. While a variety of theories have been proposed regarding its origin, the most recently published peer-reviewed studies suggest that the practice has been influenced by a range of motivations, including ritualistic practices, diet considerations, and ethical considerations. As research on the topic continues, further insight into the relationship between the Nazorean vegetarian lifestyle and its social and cultural background may be revealed.

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The Hidden History of Greco-Roman Vegetarianism

If asked about ancient Greece or Rome, the average American conjures images of famous battles, myths, and Hollywood movies. However, overlooked by the majority of modern Americans is the hidden history of ancient Greek and Roman vegetarianism and the ageless debate upon what justice is due animals. Many people assume that the predominant omnivorous diet has been the accepted diet from past to present, but history tells a different story. In addition, past philosophers reveal a fierce debate not only over diet, but about the notion of justice and to whom it applies. The debate has not ended, but in order to know where the future of this debate should go, this past should be known by all participants.

Plato

Before diving into the teachings of the Greek and Roman philosophers, it is important that the Greek and Roman diet be understood. For the Greeks and Romans, cereals, vegetables, and fruit composed much of their diet. The meat that was consumed was usually fish, fowl, or pigs, which were the cheapest and most convenient animals people could kill for their flesh. However, only the wealthiest citizens could afford to eat large amounts of meat on a regular basis.

The first philosopher in the West to create a lasting vegetarian legacy was the Greek teacher Pythagoras. He was born on the island of Samos in 580 BCE and studied in what are now the countries of Greece, Egypt, and Iraq before establishing his school in southern Italy at the city of Croton. While Pythagoras is famous for his contributions to math, music, science, and philosophy, it is his philosophy that is of particular interest. He taught that all animals, not just humans, had souls, which were immortal and reincarnated after death. Since a human might become an animal at death, and an animal might become a human, Pythagoras believed that killing and eating non-human animals sullied the soul and prevented union with a higher form of reality. Additionally, he felt that eating meat was unhealthy and made humans wage war against one another. For these reasons, he abstained from meat and encouraged others to do likewise, perhaps making him one of the earliest campaigners for ethical vegetarianism.

The Greek philosopher Plato (428/427-348/347 BCE) was influenced by Pythagorean concepts but did not go as far as Pythagoras did. It is unclear exactly what his diet consisted of, but Plato’s teachings asserted only humans had immortal souls and that the universe was for human use. Yet, in The Republic, Plato’s character Socrates asserted that the ideal city was a vegetarian city on the grounds that meat was a luxury leading to decadence and war. Thus, to Plato, abstention from flesh is warranted out of a desire for peace and an avoidance of indulgent, excessive living.

Plato’s student Aristotle (384-322 BCE) also felt the universe was for human use and that only human souls were immortal. Additionally, he argued in favor of a hierarchy of beings in which plants occupied the lowest rung of the ladder and humans the highest. In this hierarchy, Aristotle argued that women were lesser compared to men and some humans were natural slaves. As for animals, as Norm Phelps in The Longest Strugglepoints out, Aristotle reasoned that there was no ethical obligation to animals because they were irrational. Colin Spencer, in The Heretic’s Feast, noted that Aristotle argued non-human animals could not manage themselves without human aid in spite of all evidence to the contrary. In short, Aristotle established many reasons used against giving proper justice to non-human and human animals alike.

Aristotle was not the only philosopher to advance some of these views. According to Spencer, the founder of Stoicism, Zeno (c. 335-c. 263 BCE), like Aristotle, argued that there was a hierarchy of beings with plants lowest and humans highest. Similarly, Spencer said Zeno declared animals undeserving of justice due to their inability to reason, but, unlike Aristotle, he sustained himself on a diet of bread, honey, and water. Zeno demonstrated that people have embraced a vegetarian diet for many reasons and while they may not be out of concern for animals, the vegetarian diet itself was seen as providing a wholesome way of life.

A contemporary of Zeno’s was the philosopher Epicurus (341-270 BCE). Epicurus agreed that the universe was for humans. Spencer said Epicurus differed from the above philosophers by arguing that souls cease to exist at death; thus, death was nothing to fear. Another core element to his philosophy was a belief in the goodness of pleasure and the evil of pain. He thought that desire caused pain, and human dependence on temporary pleasures deprived them of true pleasure. Because of this belief, Epicurus did not eat meat as it was a luxury that distracted people from a better life. However, he made no prohibition against eating flesh, which allowed the practice to continue among adopters of his creed. While he lack a stated prohibition, his personal example illustrated what he thought was the ideal way to live, and so, like Zeno, provided another historical support in favor of the vegetarian diet.

Arguing against Aristotle’s views on animals was Aristotle’s pupil and friend Theophrastus (c. 372-c. 287 BCE), a Greek biologist and philosopher. Theophrastus argued that killing animals for food was wasteful and morally wrong. Hypothesizing as to the origin of flesh eating, he argued that war must have forced humans to eat meat by ruining the crops that they otherwise would have eaten. Unlike his teacher, Theophrastus proclaimed that animal sacrifices angered the gods and turned humanity towards atheism. Clearly, religious arguments have long been used as motivation to pursue a vegetarian diet.

Preserving the legacy of Pythagoras was the poet and moralist Ovid (43 BCE-17 CE). Ovid was a Pythagorean-influenced Stoic, who was exiled to Tomis in 8 CE by the emperor Augustus. In his poem Metamorphoses, Ovid evoked the passionate pleas of Pythagoras for people to abandon animal sacrifice and abstain from eating flesh. These passages kept the memory of Pythagoras alive and served as testament to Ovid’s own vegetarian lifestyle.

Influenced by Pythagoras and Epicurus, the Roman philosopher Seneca (c. 4 BCE-65 CE) adopted a vegetarian diet. Spencer states that Seneca denounced the cruelty of the games used by Rome to distract the citizenry and challenged the decadence of his time. Seneca was forced to hide his vegetarianism for a time under the emperor Caligula due to Caligula’s distrust. Under the emperor Nero, his former student, Seneca was forced to commit suicide at age 60, due either to rumors in the court or Nero’s jealousy.

Another Greek philosopher who argued on behalf of animals was the biographer and philosopher Plutarch (46-c. 120 CE). Influenced by Pythagorean philosophy, Plutarch adopted a vegetarian diet and wrote several essays in favor of vegetarianism as well as arguing that animals were rational and deserving of consideration. In particular, his essay On the Eating of Flesh is noteworthy for some arguments familiar to today’s vegetarians, such as the inefficiency of the human digestive system to handle flesh or the fact that humans lack the claws and fangs necessary for to the satisfaction of a carnivorous appetite. For these reasons, Plutarch is truly noteworthy as one of the earliest advocates of animal issues.

After Plutarch, the Greek philosopher Plotinus (205-270 CE) combined Pythagoreanism, Platonism, and Stoicism into a school of philosophy called Neoplatonism. He taught that all animals feel pain and pleasure, not just humans. According to Jon Gregerson, author of Vegetarianism: A History, Plotinus believed in order for humans to unite with the Supreme Reality, humans had to treat all animals with compassion. Seeking to practice what he preached, Plotinus avoided medicine made from animals. He allowed for the wearing of wool and the use of animals for farm labor, but he mandated humane treatment.

Continuing the work of Plotinus was the great Phoenician author and philosopher Porphyry (c. 232-c. 305 CE). He argued with observational and historical evidence in defense of vegetarianism and the rationality of animals. According to Spencer, in On the Impropriety of Killing Living Beings for Food, Porphyry argued meat eating encouraged violence, demonstrated the ability of animals to reason, and argued that justice should be extended to them. Like Plutarch, Porphyry ranks as one of the greatest voices for early Western vegetarianism.

Vegetarianism and animal rights have a long history in Western civilization stretching to antiquity that is unknown or forgotten by many people today. What this hidden history teaches is that many Greeks and Romans survived without eating animal flesh or using animal products. Likewise, it teaches that arguments for and against animal rights are as ancient as Greek philosophy. It demonstrates that many of the same reasons for not eating flesh today are the same as those in the past whether out of spirituality, health, peace, or justice. Furthermore, the modern animal rights movement is built upon this past. Finally, this information presents important voices that should be considered in the debate on vegetarianism and animal rights.

Nathan Morgan

Nathan Morgan, a 2010 graduate of Montana State University Billings, gave a paper on the topic of vegetarianism in the classical world at a recent animal welfare conference in Minneapolis.

Bust of Plato

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