Category Archives: Vegetarian

Book Review: Journey of Awakening: A Meditator’s Guidebook by Ram Dass

Journey of Awakening is more than a meditation manual—it’s a heartfelt invitation into the inner realms of consciousness, compassion, and self-realization, offered by one of the most influential spiritual teachers of the 20th century, Ram Dass.

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Originally published in 1978, this book serves as both a practical guide and a spiritual companion for those seeking to deepen their meditation practice and spiritual journey. What sets this book apart is Ram Dass’s unique voice—gentle yet incisive, mystical yet grounded, humorous yet profound. His years of spiritual seeking, from psychology professor Richard Alpert to his transformation under Neem Karoli Baba in India, echo through every page.

Journey of Awakening by Ram Dass

The structure of the book flows naturally from foundational concepts to more esoteric realms. Dass explores various meditation paths—mantra, breath, visualization, mindfulness, devotional practices—without privileging one over the other. He honors the diversity of spiritual temperaments, recognizing that the journey is deeply personal and nonlinear. Each practice is presented with clarity, humility, and an understanding of the obstacles that modern seekers face.

One of the most compelling aspects of Journey of Awakening is its emphasis on meditation not merely as a technique but as a way of being. Ram Dass constantly reminds the reader that awakening is not about acquiring something new, but remembering what we already are—pure awareness, beyond ego and illusion. His insights on the “witness” state and the traps of spiritual materialism are especially poignant for Western audiences.

Throughout, the book is rich with quotes from mystics, sages, and scriptures of various traditions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Sufism—making it a tapestry of global spiritual wisdom. Yet Ram Dass weaves them together with his own deeply personal experiences, making the journey feel intimate and real.

This book doesn’t demand belief or dogma. Instead, it invites exploration, reflection, and surrender. Whether you’re a complete beginner or a long-time practitioner, Journey of Awakening offers a mirror for your own path and a reminder to approach the inner world with patience, love, and openness.

Verdict:
A timeless and compassionate guide for anyone on the spiritual path. Journey of Awakening is not just a book you read—it’s a companion you return to again and again, each time discovering new depths. Profoundly human, beautifully written, and infused with quiet wisdom, it remains one of Ram Dass’s most accessible and enduring works.

⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️ (5/5 stars)

Journey of Awakening book by Ram Dass

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Ram Dass with picture of Neem Karoli Baba

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5 Reasons Guru Nanak promoted a Vegetarian Lifestyle

Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, did not explicitly mandate vegetarianism for all Sikhs. However, his teachings emphasize principles that can align with a vegetarian lifestyle. Here are five reasons why Guru Nanak’s philosophy is often seen as promoting vegetarianism:

  1. Compassion for All Living Beings (Daya):
    Guru Nanak preached compassion (daya) as a fundamental virtue. A vegetarian lifestyle can reflect compassion by minimizing harm to animals and respecting their right to life.
  2. Respect for Creation (Nam Japna and Hukam):
    Guru Nanak emphasized living in harmony with God’s creation and recognizing the divine presence in all beings. This respect for life may encourage abstaining from killing animals for food.
  3. Non-Violence (Ahimsa):
    Although not explicitly stated as a strict rule, Guru Nanak’s teachings align with the principle of non-violence, which vegetarianism supports by reducing the suffering of sentient beings.
  4. Simple Living and Moderation:
    Guru Nanak encouraged simplicity and moderation in life, including in diet. A vegetarian diet is often seen as a humble, non-excessive way of living in harmony with the earth’s resources.
  5. Focus on Spiritual Growth:
    Guru Nanak emphasized purity of mind and spirit. Some interpret this as encouraging foods that promote physical and mental clarity, which vegetarianism is often associated with in spiritual traditions.

While Sikhism does not mandate vegetarianism, some modern Sikh leaders and scholars advocate for it, emphasizing compassion and non-violence. Here are a few notable quotes:

  1. Satguru Jagjit Singh Ji (Namdhari Sikh Leader):
    • Satguru Jagjit Singh Ji, the spiritual head of the Namdhari Sikhs, emphasized a strict lacto-vegetarian diet, aligning with principles of non-violence and purity. 
  2. Damdami Taksal (Sikh Educational Organization):
    • The Damdami Taksal advocates for a strict lacto-vegetarian diet, citing the Guru Granth Sahib and promoting vegetarianism as a means to uphold compassion and non-violence. 
  3. Namdhari Sikh Community:
    • The Namdhari Sikhs follow a strict lacto-vegetarian diet and have quoted verses from the Guru Granth Sahib endorsing vegetarianism, advocating for cow protection and non-violence. 

These perspectives highlight how some modern Sikh leaders and communities interpret Sikh teachings to support and promote a vegetarian lifestyle, emphasizing compassion, non-violence, and spiritual purity.

The Holy Book of the Sikhs

The Guru Granth Sahib, the central religious scripture of Sikhism, does not explicitly endorse or condemn vegetarianism. Instead, it emphasizes spiritual development, ethical living, and devotion to God over dietary choices. Some verses address the topic of meat consumption and the futility of ritualistic debates over food purity. Here are a few relevant excerpts:

  1. Sri Guru Granth Sahib, Ang 1289-1290:
    • “First, the flesh is in the water; dwelling in the water, it is regenerated.” This verse suggests that life originates from water, implying that all forms of life are interconnected. Sikhs.org
  2. Sri Guru Granth Sahib, Ang 1103:
    • “You kill animals and call it religion; then what indeed is irreligion?” This verse questions the justification of killing animals in the name of religious practices. The Voice of Sikhs
  3. Sri Guru Granth Sahib, Ang 472:
    • “None of the grain of corn is without life. In the first place, there is life in water, by which all are made green.” This verse highlights that life exists in all forms, including plants and water, suggesting that distinguishing between living beings for dietary reasons is arbitrary. SikhiWiki

These verses indicate that Sikh teachings focus on the importance of inner purity, compassion, and ethical conduct rather than prescribing specific dietary laws. The emphasis is on understanding the interconnectedness of all life and avoiding futile debates over food choices.

Guru Nanak often spoke against violence and the unnecessary taking of life. The article referenced in this discussion (https://www.sikhsangat.com/index.php?/topic/62853-vegetarianism-according-to-sikhism/) provides a detailed explanation of how early Sikhs upheld vegetarian practices as a reflection of compassion and non-violence. These teachings resonate with Guru Nanak’s message of universal love and respect for all living beings.

While it’s true that Guru Nanak criticized the futility of debating dietary righteousness, his core message was to transcend such arguments by embracing ethical living and compassion. This principle aligns naturally with vegetarianism as a way of minimizing harm. It’s also worth noting that many historical Sikh communities rejected animal sacrifices and meat consumption, further underscoring the alignment of vegetarianism with Sikh values.

Guru Nanak

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Pliny the Younger describes the Early Christians as Vegetarian

In his letter to Emperor Trajan (Epistle 10.96), Pliny mentions that Christians would “assemble again to partake of food—but ordinary and innocent food.”

Pliny the Younger is describing the practices of early Christians. He notes that they customarily met before dawn to sing hymns to Christ and bound themselves by oath to abstain from crimes such as fraud, theft, and adultery. After these gatherings, they would “reassemble to partake of food—but food of an ordinary and innocent kind.”

Many scholars interpret Pliny’s description of the Christians’ meals as potentially vegetarian. In Pliny the Younger’s Letter 10.96, he writes to Emperor Trajan describing the Christians, stating that they would “reassemble to partake of food—but food of an ordinary and innocent kind” (cibum… promiscuum tamen et innoxium).

While Pliny does not explicitly state the type of food consumed, the phrase “innocent kind” has led some scholars to speculate that it might refer to vegetarian meals. This interpretation arises from the possibility that early Christian communities, influenced by Jewish dietary laws or ascetic traditions, may have avoided meat due to ethical, ritualistic, or symbolic reasons.

However, this view is debated. Other scholars argue that “ordinary and innocent” likely refers to simple, unadulterated food and not necessarily vegetarianism. Pliny’s goal in describing the Christians’ practices was to refute rumors of their alleged immoral feasts, such as cannibalism.

Some scholars suggest that the term “innocent” (innoxium) could imply a vegetarian diet, reflecting a commitment to non-violence and purity. This perspective is informed by the fact that certain religious groups in antiquity, such as the Pythagoreans, practiced vegetarianism for ethical reasons.

Pliny the Younger’s observation of early Christians abstaining from animal sacrifices and consuming a simple, “ordinary and innocent” meal aligns with historical evidence that the earliest followers of Jesus, including the Ebionites and Nazoreans, practiced vegetarianism. These groups not only rejected animal sacrifices but also upheld a vegetarian Love Feast or Agape Meal, reflecting their commitment to compassion, purity, and the original teachings of Jesus.

Early Christian Vegetarian Agape Love Feast

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The Gnostic Last Supper (Agape Love Feast)

The Nazoreans and Ebionites, early Jewish-Christian groups, had a unique interpretation of the Last Supper, seeing it less as a literal meal or sacrificial act and more as a symbolic communal gathering rooted in Gnostic spirituality. These sects emphasized the idea of Christ as a spiritual teacher who imparted secret wisdom, and they interpreted the Last Supper as a Love Feast (or agape feast), meant to reflect divine unity and mutual love among followers. Unlike the orthodox Christian focus on the Eucharist as the body and blood of Christ, they rejected the notion of sacrificial consumption, instead highlighting the sharing of food as a reflection of spiritual nourishment and harmony.

Vegetarianism played a central role in this interpretation. Both groups adhered to strict dietary laws, abstaining from meat and emphasizing a return to an Edenic ideal of nonviolence and purity. The Last Supper, in their eyes, was likely a vegetarian meal symbolizing the rejection of fleshly desires and worldly corruption. By sharing simple, plant-based food, they demonstrated their commitment to spiritual elevation and the interconnectedness of life. This practice also aligned with their broader ethical concerns about compassion, aligning the physical act of eating with the moral and spiritual ideals they believed Christ embodied.

For the Nazoreans and Ebionites, the Love Feast was not just a meal but a deeply communal and mystical experience, embodying Gnostic ideas of unity with the divine. It symbolized the breaking down of barriers between individuals and the fostering of a spiritual brotherhood that transcended physical concerns. In this sense, the Last Supper was a celebration of divine wisdom, love, and the potential for spiritual enlightenment, distinct from later sacramental interpretations. Their practices reflected a worldview in which the material world was seen as secondary to the spiritual, and the meal became a medium for transcending the mundane and aligning with divine truth.

Agape Gnostic Love Feast

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The Holy Family of the Ebionites

The Ebionites, an early Jewish-Christian sect, revered Jesus not as a divine being but as a prophet chosen by God to guide humanity. For them, the Holy Family was an embodiment of humility and piety, a testament to God’s ability to work through the ordinary. Mary, in their view, was a devout young woman of deep faith, chosen by God for her purity of heart rather than supernatural qualities. Joseph, too, was a righteous man who provided for his family with the steady hands of a carpenter or stone mason, a reflection of the quiet virtues of diligence and faithfulness. Together, they symbolized the simplicity of God’s will being fulfilled through the lives of the meek and humble.

Jesus, to the Ebionites, was born not through divine conception but as the natural child of Mary and Joseph, a product of human love and obedience to God’s laws. They believed that Jesus’ wisdom and righteousness were the result of his devout upbringing and his unwavering devotion to the Torah. As a child, he would sit at Joseph’s feet, learning the trade of carpentry, while Mary taught him the sacred traditions and scriptures. The family was seen as a model of Jewish piety, adhering to the dietary laws, observing the Sabbath, and making annual pilgrimages to the Temple. The Ebionites found in them a relatable sanctity, a reminder that holiness was accessible to all who lived in alignment with God’s commandments.

The Ebionites also believed that the Holy Family’s way of life reflected an ethic of compassion, which extended to their dietary practices. They taught that Mary, Joseph, and Jesus adhered to a vegetarian diet, avoiding the killing of animals as part of their commitment to God’s creation. For the Ebionites, this was not just a matter of health but a profound spiritual discipline, rooted in the belief that the original harmony of Eden could be restored through nonviolence and reverence for all life. They saw Jesus as the perfect exemplar of this principle, teaching love not only for humanity but for all creatures. The vegetarianism of the Holy Family became, for the Ebionites, a symbol of their purity and their alignment with God’s original intent for the world, inspiring them to practice the same in their pursuit of righteousness.

This perspective on the Holy Family shaped the Ebionite understanding of salvation. They believed that Jesus, inspired by the Spirit of God at his baptism, became a teacher and guide for humanity, showing the way to live in harmony with God’s will. The family’s humble origins underscored their belief that salvation did not come from wealth, power, or divine favoritism, but from obedience to the law and a life of compassion and simplicity. For the Ebionites, the story of the Holy Family was not about miraculous interventions but about the sanctification of the ordinary, a message they sought to live out in their own lives.

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The Case for Jesus and Early Christian Vegetarianism

Dear friends, today I invite you to reflect on evidence that has been largely overlooked but deserves our serious consideration: the possibility that Jesus and the earliest Christians lived a vegetarian lifestyle. This is not just an idea born out of modern concerns but a perspective deeply rooted in ancient texts, early Christian traditions, and historical records.

First, let us begin with the figure of John the Baptist, a man revered as the forerunner of Christ. Traditionally, John is said to have eaten locusts and wild honey, but alternative translations and ancient texts like the Gospel of the Ebionites suggest that “locusts” may have been mistranslated, and he likely ate “honey cakes” or manna, both vegetarian foods. Could this indicate a broader ethos of compassion and simplicity, reflective of a plant-based diet?

Consider also James the Just, the brother of Jesus and a key leader of the early Christian community. Historical accounts, including those by Hegesippus, describe James as a Nazarite, a man who abstained from meat and alcohol. As Jesus’ closest companion, wouldn’t James have exemplified his brother’s teachings? Scholars like Robert Eisenman suggest that James’ vegetarianism reflects the values of the original Jesus movement.

Furthermore, early Christian texts such as the Clementine Homilies advocate for abstaining from meat, aligning with the belief that humanity was created to live in harmony with all creatures. These writings reveal that early Christian communities may have viewed vegetarianism not just as a dietary choice but as a moral imperative, integral to living a life of love, mercy, and nonviolence—the very heart of Jesus’ teachings.

Finally, let us look to the Ebionites, an early Jewish-Christian sect who followed Jesus’ teachings and practiced vegetarianism. Though dismissed by later church orthodoxy, their practices and beliefs offer a glimpse into the original teachings of Christ. Alongside them, the Mandaeans and other ancient sects reveal that vegetarianism was not just an anomaly but a recurring theme among early spiritual movements.

Friends, this is not a call to rewrite scripture but to recognize the undeniable evidence before us—evidence that challenges us to reevaluate our understanding of Jesus’ teachings and the practices of his earliest followers. It reminds us to approach history with humility and a willingness to learn. Whether or not we adopt these practices ourselves, let us honor the compassion and respect for life that these traditions embody, for they are timeless truths deeply aligned with the spirit of Christ.

Amen.

Yeshua as an Ebionite Nazarene vegetarian prophet and messiah, embodying compassion and harmony with nature.

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The Gnostic Rejection of Violence and Sacrifice

Jesus / Yeshua the Nazorean

Gnosticism, as a broader movement, typically emphasizes asceticism, the rejection of materialism, and the pursuit of spiritual enlightenment. The material world, including acts of violence such as killing animals, is often seen as the creation of the demiurge (a lesser, corrupt deity). Many Gnostics sought to transcend this world through non-violence and spiritual purity, which is why vegetarianism was widely practiced among various Gnostic sects.

  • Animal Sacrifice as Violence: Most Gnostics viewed the material world as inherently flawed and violent. Acts like animal sacrifice were often seen as perpetuating this corruption. Instead, Gnostics advocated for spiritual practices that aligned with non-violence, inner purity, and the rejection of worldly desires, including the consumption of meat.
  • Gnostic Scriptures and Teachings: Texts like the Gospel of Thomas emphasize direct spiritual knowledge (gnosis) and inner enlightenment, rejecting the need for external rituals like sacrifices. Similarly, early Christian Gnostics often cited Jesus’ opposition to the temple’s sacrificial system (e.g., his cleansing of the temple in Matthew 21:12-13) as evidence of his rejection of such practices.
  • Jesus and the Sacrificial System: Jesus’ identification as the “Lamb of God” symbolizes a spiritual sacrifice that replaces the need for physical sacrifices. This aligns with the Gnostic view that true spiritual transformation comes from within, not through external rituals.

 “Consuming God” in Gnosticism

  • Metaphorical, Not Literal: The idea of “eating and consuming God” in Gnosticism is primarily metaphorical. It represents spiritual communion, enlightenment, and the assimilation of divine wisdom, not the literal consumption of animal flesh.
  • Eucharistic Symbolism: Early Gnostic interpretations of the Eucharist (the symbolic eating of Christ’s body and blood) emphasize its spiritual, not material, significance. Gnostics often interpreted this act as a mystical union with the divine, rejecting the physicality of consuming literal flesh and blood.
  • Non-Material Spirituality: The Gnostic worldview consistently prioritizes the spiritual over the physical. The idea of literally consuming God through animal sacrifices would contradict their fundamental belief in transcending materiality and rejecting the violence of the physical world.

Historical Evidence of Gnostic Vegetarianism

  • Ebionites and Nazoreans: Many early Christian Gnostic sects, such as the Ebionites and Nazoreans, explicitly rejected meat consumption and animal sacrifice. These groups saw vegetarianism as a way to embody Jesus’ teachings of non-violence, mercy, and compassion.
  • Essenes and Similar Groups: While some Essenes practiced animal sacrifice, other ascetic Jewish sects, including those with Gnostic leanings, rejected it altogether. The diversity within these groups highlights the broader trend of rejecting animal sacrifice among those pursuing spiritual purity.
  • Ethical Vegetarianism: Gnostics often tied their rejection of meat to ethical concerns, viewing the killing of animals as an unnecessary act of violence that perpetuated the corrupt material world created by the demiurge.

Vegetarianism was superior in many Gnostic groups because it aligned with their rejection of the material world’s violence and corruption. Sects like the Manicheans and Cathars practiced vegetarianism as a reflection of their commitment to spiritual purity, non-violence, and detachment from the material realm. Unlike sacrificial traditions in other faiths, Gnostic thought often viewed abstaining from meat as essential to transcending the physical world’s base desires, making vegetarianism a natural extension of their cosmology and ethics.

Jesus the Good Shepherd

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Spiritual Significance of Annada Ekadasi

Annada Ekadasi, also known as Aja Ekadasi, is a significant Hindu fasting day dedicated to Lord Vishnu. It occurs during the waning phase of the moon in the Hindu month of Bhadrapada (August-September). This day holds great spiritual significance and is believed to grant liberation from sins, fulfillment of desires, and the blessings of prosperity and well-being.

Significance:

  1. Spiritual Cleansing and Merit: Fasting on Annada Ekadasi is believed to cleanse one’s sins and bring spiritual merit. Devotees observe the fast with the belief that it purifies the mind and body, helping to enhance devotion towards Lord Vishnu.
  2. Connection to Lord Vishnu: Annada Ekadasi is a day to honor and worship Lord Vishnu. It is believed that sincere observance of this fast pleases Lord Vishnu, who grants the devotee’s wishes and blesses them with a prosperous life and spiritual upliftment.
  3. Charity and Helping the Needy: The name “Annada” implies “giver of food,” emphasizing the importance of feeding the hungry and helping those in need on this day. Acts of charity are highly encouraged, as they are believed to multiply the spiritual benefits of fasting.

Legends Surrounding Annada Ekadasi:

One of the prominent legends associated with Annada Ekadasi involves the story of King Harishchandra, a righteous and truthful king who lost his kingdom, family, and wealth due to a series of misfortunes. According to the legend:

  • The Story of King Harishchandra: King Harishchandra was once the ruler of Ayodhya, renowned for his unwavering commitment to truth and righteousness. Due to a curse and the tests posed by Sage Vishwamitra, he lost everything and was reduced to working as a crematorium caretaker, separated from his family and enduring immense suffering.
  • Divine Guidance: After years of hardship, a sage advised Harishchandra to observe the fast of Annada Ekadasi. Following the sage’s advice, Harishchandra observed the fast with complete devotion to Lord Vishnu.
  • Miraculous Transformation: Pleased with his devotion, Lord Vishnu appeared before Harishchandra, restored his lost kingdom, and reunited him with his family. He was also blessed with the return of his deceased son. This legend underscores the power of Annada Ekadasi in granting divine grace, forgiveness, and the restoration of one’s fortunes.

Rituals:

  1. Fasting: Devotees fast from sunrise to the next morning, abstaining from grains, beans, and certain other foods. Some observe a strict waterless fast, while others may consume fruits and milk.
  2. Worship and Prayers: Devotees perform puja (worship) of Lord Vishnu with flowers, incense, and offerings, and chant Vishnu-related mantras or recite the Vishnu Sahasranama (a list of a thousand names of Lord Vishnu).
  3. Charity: Acts of charity, such as feeding the poor or donating to temples, are considered highly meritorious on this day.

Annada Ekadasi is a day of deep spiritual significance, reminding devotees of the virtues of truth, devotion, and the transformative power of divine grace through steadfast faith and adherence to dharma (righteousness).

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Vegetarian Lifestyle of the Nazoreans

The vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans has been a longstanding topic of debate among religious scholars. While the practice of not consuming animal products has been maintained for more than two thousand years, there is a general lack of consensus regarding its origin and development over time. This paper will explore the various theories that have been suggested by scholars regarding the vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans. Additionally, the most current peer-reviewed studies on the topic are analyzed in order to bring attention to both the complexities and benefits associated with the practice.

The first and most prominent theory regarding the origin of Nazorean vegetarianism dates back to ancient Judaism. This line of argument claims that Moses and the ancient Israelites, who were vegan by choice, inspired the Nazoreans and their choice to abstain from animal products. Other historical accounts suggest that the vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans was adopted from the Essenes, a Jewish sect known for their asceticism and dietary restrictions. While these theories are all viable options for consideration, more recent scholarship has focused on the ritual practices of the Nazoreans as an indication of their adherence to the vegetarian lifestyle.

Peer-reviewed studies have provided substantive evidence indicating that the vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans was related to a variety of rituals and ceremonies, including seasonal feasts and special occasions. For instance, one study found that during the Egyptian festivals of Pascha and Unleavened Bread, all animal products were abstained from and replaced with plant-based alternatives in celebration. During these times, the consumption of animal products was thought to be both a violation of the Nazoreans’ faith and an act of impurity. Scholars believe that this ritual abstinence provided an impetus for the development and maintenance of the Nazorean vegetarian lifestyle.

In addition to this ritualistic motivation, contemporary scholars have suggested that the provision of animal-free food was motivated by both ethical and health-related considerations. Existing evidence suggests that vegetarian diets positively benefit both emotions and physical health, and it is possible that the Nazoreans valued these dietary considerations. Furthermore, it has been argued that the features of the Nazorean diet, such as its inclusion of vegetables, legumes, and fruits, may have been seen as a means to promote harmony and balance within the community.

In conclusion, the vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans is a complex phenomenon that has been the subject of numerous scholarly debates for more than two thousand years. While a variety of theories have been proposed regarding its origin, the most recently published peer-reviewed studies suggest that the practice has been influenced by a range of motivations, including ritualistic practices, diet considerations, and ethical considerations. As research on the topic continues, further insight into the relationship between the Nazorean vegetarian lifestyle and its social and cultural background may be revealed.

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The Hidden History of Greco-Roman Vegetarianism

If asked about ancient Greece or Rome, the average American conjures images of famous battles, myths, and Hollywood movies. However, overlooked by the majority of modern Americans is the hidden history of ancient Greek and Roman vegetarianism and the ageless debate upon what justice is due animals. Many people assume that the predominant omnivorous diet has been the accepted diet from past to present, but history tells a different story. In addition, past philosophers reveal a fierce debate not only over diet, but about the notion of justice and to whom it applies. The debate has not ended, but in order to know where the future of this debate should go, this past should be known by all participants.

Plato

Before diving into the teachings of the Greek and Roman philosophers, it is important that the Greek and Roman diet be understood. For the Greeks and Romans, cereals, vegetables, and fruit composed much of their diet. The meat that was consumed was usually fish, fowl, or pigs, which were the cheapest and most convenient animals people could kill for their flesh. However, only the wealthiest citizens could afford to eat large amounts of meat on a regular basis.

The first philosopher in the West to create a lasting vegetarian legacy was the Greek teacher Pythagoras. He was born on the island of Samos in 580 BCE and studied in what are now the countries of Greece, Egypt, and Iraq before establishing his school in southern Italy at the city of Croton. While Pythagoras is famous for his contributions to math, music, science, and philosophy, it is his philosophy that is of particular interest. He taught that all animals, not just humans, had souls, which were immortal and reincarnated after death. Since a human might become an animal at death, and an animal might become a human, Pythagoras believed that killing and eating non-human animals sullied the soul and prevented union with a higher form of reality. Additionally, he felt that eating meat was unhealthy and made humans wage war against one another. For these reasons, he abstained from meat and encouraged others to do likewise, perhaps making him one of the earliest campaigners for ethical vegetarianism.

The Greek philosopher Plato (428/427-348/347 BCE) was influenced by Pythagorean concepts but did not go as far as Pythagoras did. It is unclear exactly what his diet consisted of, but Plato’s teachings asserted only humans had immortal souls and that the universe was for human use. Yet, in The Republic, Plato’s character Socrates asserted that the ideal city was a vegetarian city on the grounds that meat was a luxury leading to decadence and war. Thus, to Plato, abstention from flesh is warranted out of a desire for peace and an avoidance of indulgent, excessive living.

Plato’s student Aristotle (384-322 BCE) also felt the universe was for human use and that only human souls were immortal. Additionally, he argued in favor of a hierarchy of beings in which plants occupied the lowest rung of the ladder and humans the highest. In this hierarchy, Aristotle argued that women were lesser compared to men and some humans were natural slaves. As for animals, as Norm Phelps in The Longest Strugglepoints out, Aristotle reasoned that there was no ethical obligation to animals because they were irrational. Colin Spencer, in The Heretic’s Feast, noted that Aristotle argued non-human animals could not manage themselves without human aid in spite of all evidence to the contrary. In short, Aristotle established many reasons used against giving proper justice to non-human and human animals alike.

Aristotle was not the only philosopher to advance some of these views. According to Spencer, the founder of Stoicism, Zeno (c. 335-c. 263 BCE), like Aristotle, argued that there was a hierarchy of beings with plants lowest and humans highest. Similarly, Spencer said Zeno declared animals undeserving of justice due to their inability to reason, but, unlike Aristotle, he sustained himself on a diet of bread, honey, and water. Zeno demonstrated that people have embraced a vegetarian diet for many reasons and while they may not be out of concern for animals, the vegetarian diet itself was seen as providing a wholesome way of life.

A contemporary of Zeno’s was the philosopher Epicurus (341-270 BCE). Epicurus agreed that the universe was for humans. Spencer said Epicurus differed from the above philosophers by arguing that souls cease to exist at death; thus, death was nothing to fear. Another core element to his philosophy was a belief in the goodness of pleasure and the evil of pain. He thought that desire caused pain, and human dependence on temporary pleasures deprived them of true pleasure. Because of this belief, Epicurus did not eat meat as it was a luxury that distracted people from a better life. However, he made no prohibition against eating flesh, which allowed the practice to continue among adopters of his creed. While he lack a stated prohibition, his personal example illustrated what he thought was the ideal way to live, and so, like Zeno, provided another historical support in favor of the vegetarian diet.

Arguing against Aristotle’s views on animals was Aristotle’s pupil and friend Theophrastus (c. 372-c. 287 BCE), a Greek biologist and philosopher. Theophrastus argued that killing animals for food was wasteful and morally wrong. Hypothesizing as to the origin of flesh eating, he argued that war must have forced humans to eat meat by ruining the crops that they otherwise would have eaten. Unlike his teacher, Theophrastus proclaimed that animal sacrifices angered the gods and turned humanity towards atheism. Clearly, religious arguments have long been used as motivation to pursue a vegetarian diet.

Preserving the legacy of Pythagoras was the poet and moralist Ovid (43 BCE-17 CE). Ovid was a Pythagorean-influenced Stoic, who was exiled to Tomis in 8 CE by the emperor Augustus. In his poem Metamorphoses, Ovid evoked the passionate pleas of Pythagoras for people to abandon animal sacrifice and abstain from eating flesh. These passages kept the memory of Pythagoras alive and served as testament to Ovid’s own vegetarian lifestyle.

Influenced by Pythagoras and Epicurus, the Roman philosopher Seneca (c. 4 BCE-65 CE) adopted a vegetarian diet. Spencer states that Seneca denounced the cruelty of the games used by Rome to distract the citizenry and challenged the decadence of his time. Seneca was forced to hide his vegetarianism for a time under the emperor Caligula due to Caligula’s distrust. Under the emperor Nero, his former student, Seneca was forced to commit suicide at age 60, due either to rumors in the court or Nero’s jealousy.

Another Greek philosopher who argued on behalf of animals was the biographer and philosopher Plutarch (46-c. 120 CE). Influenced by Pythagorean philosophy, Plutarch adopted a vegetarian diet and wrote several essays in favor of vegetarianism as well as arguing that animals were rational and deserving of consideration. In particular, his essay On the Eating of Flesh is noteworthy for some arguments familiar to today’s vegetarians, such as the inefficiency of the human digestive system to handle flesh or the fact that humans lack the claws and fangs necessary for to the satisfaction of a carnivorous appetite. For these reasons, Plutarch is truly noteworthy as one of the earliest advocates of animal issues.

After Plutarch, the Greek philosopher Plotinus (205-270 CE) combined Pythagoreanism, Platonism, and Stoicism into a school of philosophy called Neoplatonism. He taught that all animals feel pain and pleasure, not just humans. According to Jon Gregerson, author of Vegetarianism: A History, Plotinus believed in order for humans to unite with the Supreme Reality, humans had to treat all animals with compassion. Seeking to practice what he preached, Plotinus avoided medicine made from animals. He allowed for the wearing of wool and the use of animals for farm labor, but he mandated humane treatment.

Continuing the work of Plotinus was the great Phoenician author and philosopher Porphyry (c. 232-c. 305 CE). He argued with observational and historical evidence in defense of vegetarianism and the rationality of animals. According to Spencer, in On the Impropriety of Killing Living Beings for Food, Porphyry argued meat eating encouraged violence, demonstrated the ability of animals to reason, and argued that justice should be extended to them. Like Plutarch, Porphyry ranks as one of the greatest voices for early Western vegetarianism.

Vegetarianism and animal rights have a long history in Western civilization stretching to antiquity that is unknown or forgotten by many people today. What this hidden history teaches is that many Greeks and Romans survived without eating animal flesh or using animal products. Likewise, it teaches that arguments for and against animal rights are as ancient as Greek philosophy. It demonstrates that many of the same reasons for not eating flesh today are the same as those in the past whether out of spirituality, health, peace, or justice. Furthermore, the modern animal rights movement is built upon this past. Finally, this information presents important voices that should be considered in the debate on vegetarianism and animal rights.

Nathan Morgan

Nathan Morgan, a 2010 graduate of Montana State University Billings, gave a paper on the topic of vegetarianism in the classical world at a recent animal welfare conference in Minneapolis.

Bust of Plato

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