Annada Ekadasi, also known as Aja Ekadasi, is a significant Hindu fasting day dedicated to Lord Vishnu. It occurs during the waning phase of the moon in the Hindu month of Bhadrapada (August-September). This day holds great spiritual significance and is believed to grant liberation from sins, fulfillment of desires, and the blessings of prosperity and well-being.
Significance:
Spiritual Cleansing and Merit: Fasting on Annada Ekadasi is believed to cleanse one’s sins and bring spiritual merit. Devotees observe the fast with the belief that it purifies the mind and body, helping to enhance devotion towards Lord Vishnu.
Connection to Lord Vishnu: Annada Ekadasi is a day to honor and worship Lord Vishnu. It is believed that sincere observance of this fast pleases Lord Vishnu, who grants the devotee’s wishes and blesses them with a prosperous life and spiritual upliftment.
Charity and Helping the Needy: The name “Annada” implies “giver of food,” emphasizing the importance of feeding the hungry and helping those in need on this day. Acts of charity are highly encouraged, as they are believed to multiply the spiritual benefits of fasting.
Legends Surrounding Annada Ekadasi:
One of the prominent legends associated with Annada Ekadasi involves the story of King Harishchandra, a righteous and truthful king who lost his kingdom, family, and wealth due to a series of misfortunes. According to the legend:
The Story of King Harishchandra: King Harishchandra was once the ruler of Ayodhya, renowned for his unwavering commitment to truth and righteousness. Due to a curse and the tests posed by Sage Vishwamitra, he lost everything and was reduced to working as a crematorium caretaker, separated from his family and enduring immense suffering.
Divine Guidance: After years of hardship, a sage advised Harishchandra to observe the fast of Annada Ekadasi. Following the sage’s advice, Harishchandra observed the fast with complete devotion to Lord Vishnu.
Miraculous Transformation: Pleased with his devotion, Lord Vishnu appeared before Harishchandra, restored his lost kingdom, and reunited him with his family. He was also blessed with the return of his deceased son. This legend underscores the power of Annada Ekadasi in granting divine grace, forgiveness, and the restoration of one’s fortunes.
Rituals:
Fasting: Devotees fast from sunrise to the next morning, abstaining from grains, beans, and certain other foods. Some observe a strict waterless fast, while others may consume fruits and milk.
Worship and Prayers: Devotees perform puja (worship) of Lord Vishnu with flowers, incense, and offerings, and chant Vishnu-related mantras or recite the Vishnu Sahasranama (a list of a thousand names of Lord Vishnu).
Charity: Acts of charity, such as feeding the poor or donating to temples, are considered highly meritorious on this day.
Annada Ekadasi is a day of deep spiritual significance, reminding devotees of the virtues of truth, devotion, and the transformative power of divine grace through steadfast faith and adherence to dharma (righteousness).
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The historicity of the legends related to the son of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar, known commonly as Caesarion or Ptolemy XV Caesar, has been debated for centuries. Legends from various sources, from as early as the first century BC, claim that Caesarion fled to India or Ethiopia to escape the fate of his mother and other family members. However, there is little to no evidence to back up such claims and the true fate of Caesarion remains an enigma. Let’s discuss the likelihood of this legend’s historicity, with a focus on the mysterious region of Ethiopia which has frequently been mentioned as a possible candidate for Caesarion’s resting place.
Bust of Caesarion
When Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, the empire fell into chaos and the heirs of Caesar found themselves in danger from those hoping to seize power. Caesar’s last will, appointed Cleopatra’s son Caesarion as his heir and joint ruler with Octavian and Mark Antony, further complicated the situation between the ambitions of Rome’s three key players. Consequently, when Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the battle of Actium in 31 BC, the young Caesarion found himself in jeopardy.
The ancient accounts vary on what happened to the young Ptolemy X Caesarion. The earliest reference of his whereabouts appears in a book written by a popular historian of the early Christian church, Theophilus, who claims that Caesarion was able to escape to Ethiopia after the battle of Actium. But other writers, such as Philo of Alexandria and Plutarch, offer an alternative view: that Cleopatra and Caesarion were both found hiding in a tomb but were both later beheaded. This account would seem to indicate that one of the most famous sons of Caesar and Cleopatra had in fact perished during the civil war in Rome.
Reliefs of Cleopatra and Caesarion at the Temple of Dendera
Nevertheless, some believe that the legend of Caesarion’s escape to Ethiopia or India was an embellishment of the truth, added for dramatic effect to these ancient accounts. But there were also those who believed it to be possible, if not even likely. Plutarch wrote that Caesarion endured “many dangers from his enemies,” and that he was “felled to the ground,” while he was “on the threshold of India, on the border of Ethiopia.” This detail would have been impossible to have included had it not been based upon true events.
Queen Cleopatra
Furthermore, some scholars have argued that certain coins found in both India and Ethiopia have provided evidence that Caesarion had indeed escaped his fate and relocated to one of these countries. In addition, Queen Kushite Taharqa claimed descent from Caesarion, giving credence to the claim that he had in fact reached Ethiopia. And in India, the practice of honoring a Ptolemy, assumed to be a descendant of Caesarion, has been passed on throughout the generations, lending weight to the claim of Ceasarion’s existence in India as well.
In conclusion, the theory that Cesarean, son of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar, escaped to either Ethiopia or India appears to be supported by many ancient sources, as well as by the evidence of coins and ongoing practices in India and Ethiopia that suggest his existence. However, the truth may never be known with absolute certainty, as the historicity of the legend of Caesarion’s escape is a matter of much debate.
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The Bhakti movement and Sufi Islam are two religious movements that have a strong presence in India and the wider Indian subcontinent. The Bhakti movement is an intensely devotional form of Hinduism that originated in South India and eventually spread across the Indian subcontinent, while Sufi Islam is an Islamic mysticism that originated in the Middle East and was spread to the Indian subcontinent by Sufi teachers. The two movements share many similarities, most notably their emphasis on love, devotion, and spiritual growth, but how the Bhakti movement has influenced the Sufi movement in India is not as well understood. Let us explore the influence of the Bhakti movement on the Sufi Islam of India and its implications for the religious life of India today.
Background of the Bhakti and Sufi Movements
The Bhakti movement originated in South India during the 7th century CE, and it quickly spread to other parts of India. The movement was a strong expression of Hinduism, but it was distinct from the more orthodox forms of Hinduism, such as Vedanta and Yoga. The Bhaktis focused on the personal relationship between the devotee and God, believing that the only way to find salvation was through unconditional love and devotion. The Bhakti movement had a profoundly spiritual and devotional character that appealed to many Hindus across India.
The Sufi movement is an Islamic mysticism that originated in the Middle East and eventually spread to the Indian subcontinent. Like the Bhakti movement, the Sufi movement focused on a personal relationship with God, believing that the only way to reach divine union was through love, devotion and submission to the will of God. Sufi teachers traveled to India during the medieval period, and their teachings quickly spread to the various Islamic communities of the subcontinent.
The Influence of the Bhakti Movement on Sufi Islam
The Bhakti movement had a profound influence on the development of Sufi Islam in India. Bhakti teachings, specifically those of the great South Indian Bhakti saints, Kabir and Guru Nanak, were deeply influential in shaping the structure and direction of Indian Sufi Islam. The Bhakti saints argued that the only way to salvation was through love, devotion and spiritual growth, and this idea was picked up by the early Sufi teachers who were inspired by their teachings.
The mingling of Bhakti and Sufi beliefs is also seen in the Hindu-Muslim syncretic traditions of Sufi Islamic traditions in India. The idea of a single, unified God, often referred to as “Ishwarkrishna” or “Ishwar-Allah”, was adopted by many Sufis. This emerged from their experience of interfaith dialogue and their appreciation for the spiritual aspects of Hinduism. This unity of God would have been unthinkable without the influence of Bhakti teachings and the experience of interfaith dialogue.
The Bhakti movement has had a profound influence on the development of Sufi Islam in India. The shared emphasis on love, devotion and spiritual growth, and the syncretic blending of Hindu and Muslim beliefs, have had a lasting impact on the religious life of India and its people. The influence of the Bhakti movement on Sufi Islam has resulted in a more inclusive, tolerant and open-minded religious culture that continues to thrive and develop in India today.
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In his book The Sufis, Idries Shah provides a detailed account of the life and teachings of one of the most important figures of Sufism, Muhyi al-Din Ibn Arabi (1165-1240). Ibn Arabi was a prominent scholar, mystic, and poet whose writings contributed greatly to the development of Sufism and Islamic theology. Although his life and teachings were controversial in his lifetime, Ibn Arabi is considered an important figure in Islamic spirituality, and is known for his influential teachings on the concept of God’s unity and his emphasis on spiritual experience over intellectual knowledge. We will provide an overview of Ibn Arabi’s life and teachings, with a focus on the chapter in Shah’s book The Sufis about Ibn Arabi.
Biography
Ibn Arabi was born in Murcia, Spain, in 1165. His father was a lawyer from Seville, and his mother was from an important Andalusian noble family. Arabi was educated at the famous Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo, Egypt, where he studied Islamic theology, philosophy, and Sufism. He was also influenced by the teachings of al-Ghazali, an influential medieval thinker and Sufi scholar whose works would later become one of the major sources of Ibn Arabi’s teachings.
At an early stage, Ibn Arabi developed a passionate interest in spirituality and mysticism, and began to develop his own powerful teachings. Eventually, he settled in Damascus and began to teach, travel, and write extensively. His writings spanned many topics, but focused primarily on his theories of unity, love, and integration. He wrote about the divine unity and the essential oneness of all creation, and about the need for a strong connection between the individual and the divine in order to find inner harmony and peace.
Ibn Arabi’s Teachings
Ibn Arabi’s most important contribution to Sufi teachings was his concept of unity in God, or wahdat al-wujud. He preached that since God is one, all of creation is essentially one with Him, and all beings share in His oneness. He believed that humans could experience the fullness of God’s unity through a direct experience of the divine within, and that this experience was a necessary prerequisite for spiritual development. He also believed that the self can only be fully realized when it is connected to the divine, and that this connection is achieved through the practice of dhikr, or remembrance of God.
In his writings, Ibn Arabi also sought to bridge the gap between philosophy and mystical experience, and to emphasize the importance of both forms of knowledge. He argued that true understanding of the divine cannot be achieved through theoretical knowledge alone, but must also rely on subjective experience and direct contemplation of the divine. He believed that the true nature of reality could only be experienced through the direct experience of unity with the divine.
Ibn Arabi was one of the most important figures in Islamic spirituality. His writings explored the concept of God’s unity and emphasized the need for a strong connection between the individual and divine in order to find inner harmony and peace. His life and teachings provide a powerful example of the importance of spiritual experience in developing a deeper understanding of God and of the world.
The Neo-Platonic influences on Ibn Arabi
Throughout history, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi has been revered for his insistence on universal spirituality, his ability to synthesize different metaphysical traditions, and his expansive view of the world. Ibn Arabi’s writings have been critical to the formation of Sufism and his works continue to be cited and debated in Islamic scholarship. While established as an important figure in classical Islamic theology, Ibn Arabi’s teachings were heavily influenced by Neo-Platonic concepts. We will survey some of the key Neo-Platonic ideas that imbued Ibn Arabi’s writings and discuss the ways in which these ideas were expressed and extended in the philosopher’s work.
The term “Neo-Platonism” first appears in the writings of 15th century German scholar Johannes Reuchlin, who used it to describe the renaissance of Platonism that was taking place in the Islamic world in the 13th century. This period saw a revival of Platonic thought in the Islamic world that was heavily influenced by Neopythagorean speculation on the nature of the heavens, the divine, and the soul. Neo-Platonism influenced a great many Muslim philosophers, including Ibn Arabi.
Ibn Arabi’s writings are immersed in Neo-Platonism, from his One Thousand and One Treatises of Philosophy, to his major work, the Meccan Revelations. In the One Thousand and One Treatises, for instance, Ibn Arabi argues that the Neo-Platonic concept of the “Unity of Being” – the belief that all existence is effectively a single, unified entity – is key to understanding the nature of the spiritual path. In this regard, he goes beyond Neo-Platonic thought and strengthens its core concepts, such as God’s essential unity and the living, personal nature of Being. Similarly, in the Meccan Revelations, Ibn Arabi affirms the Neopythagorean belief in the unity of souls, but argues that a plurality of individual souls is the product of a complex and subtle mystical process.
Ibn Arabi was also influenced by the Neo-Platonic idea of the demiurge, or mediator between the material and the spiritual. For example, Ibn Arabi believed that humanity could become active participants in the cosmic process of self-realization, and argued that the spiritual “guide” was essential to this path. In this way, he was able to incorporate Neo-Platonic ideas of divine mediation into his own spiritual philosophy.
Finally, Ibn Arabi took Neo-Platonism beyond mere philosophical speculation and incorporated its concepts into Islamic theology. He argued that the Islamic tradition contains the truth of both Platonic and Neo-Platonic concepts, and sought to demonstrate how these truths manifest within Islamic theology. In this way, he was able to bridge the gap between these two philosophical traditions, as well as to establish an integrated worldview based on both.
Ibn Arabi’s writings are deeply influenced by Neo-Platonic concepts. Through his works, he was able to synthesize Neo-Platonism with the Islamic tradition and create an expansive vision of the universe that was rooted in the principle of the Unity of Being. While the Neo-Platonic ideas expounded by Ibn Arabi were complex, they ultimately helped to express the essence of his spiritual philosophy.
The Islamic mystic, Muhyddin Ibn Arabi, was a hugely influential thinker and writer who attempted to bridge the spiritual chasm between East and West. Borrowing ideas from both Hinduism and Islam, he created an innovative and controversial synthesis of the two traditions. One of the most influential of these ideas he inherited from Hinduism was the concept of Bhakti (devotional love). Let’s explore how this concept impacted Ibn Arabi’s thought and how it continued to influence Sufi traditions up to the present day.
What is Bhakti?
Bhakti is a Hindu term that refers to a devotional practice of love and sacrifice for a divine entity. It is closely related to the concept of puja, a ritualistic practice of worship intended to evoke a spiritual connection between an individual and the Divine. Bhakti can also be seen as a way of attaining spiritual liberation through the selfless act of devotion. The Bhakti movement itself was a product of the 11th century in which the idea of loving god spread across India, influencing literature and popular culture.
Ibn Arabi’s Influences
Ibn Arabi was deeply influenced by the Bhakti tradition. He saw it as a way to reconcile his Islamic faith with the spiritual practices he inherited from Hindu tradition. His writing was full of references to Bhakti, most notably in his ‘Futuhat al-makkiyya’ (Meccan Openings). Here, Ibn Arabi writes about love as being ‘the greatest of worships’, a sentiment deeply rooted in the Bhakti tradition. Ibn Arabi’s ideas on divine love, proximity and transcendence were largely shaped by his understanding of Bhakti.
Bhakti’s Influence on Sufism
Ibn Arabi’s understanding of Bhakti had a profound influence on the development of Sufism. During the 13th century, Sufi communities began to adopt Bhakti ideas of love and devotion from Ibn Arabi. This was reflected in popular Sufi interpretation of the Quran, which focused heavily on the theme of one’s relationship with god. This idea of a close relationship with the Divine was further developed by later Sufi thinkers such as Rumi and Shabistari.
Conclusion
This search has explored the influence of Hindu Bhakti on the mystic philosopher Muhyddin Ibn Arabi’s thought and how this has carried forward to shape the traditions of Sufism up to the present day. Ibn Arabi’s incorporation of Bhakti ideas into his philosophy provided a bridge between the two distinct traditions of Hinduism and Islam, helping to unite the spiritual practices of both. His understanding of the importance of love, proximity and transcendence inspired later Sufi thinkers and continues to shape Islam today.
Here’s some quotes by Ibn Arabi :
1. “We must accept the presence of God in everyone.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
2. “God created Adam out of Love, not out of need.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
3. “If you do not know your essence, then you do not know your Lord.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
4. “If you love truth, be a lover; and if you love Wisdom, be a seeker.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
5. “The God you do not know is preferable to you than the god you believe in comfortingly.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
6. “Whoever comes to know himself, knows his Lord.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
7. “He who knows himself, knows his Lord.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
8. “The entire universe is a divine Face; every thing in it is a sign.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
9. “He who has knowledge of himself knows all things.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
10. “Prayer is the most precious pearl of wisdom, and silence is its true form.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
11. “The worship of one God brings with it a knowledge of all created beings.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
12. “Rejoice in the knowledge of your own Self.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
13. “The more we discover within ourselves, the more we discover God.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
14. “In truth, God inspires in you the knowledge and wisdom that He has for you.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
15. “God’s mercy is so great that it forgives you not for a single moment, but for eternity.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
16. “The source of spirituality is the heart of man, not a book or a teacher.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
17. “Do not seek to understand in order to believe, but believe in order to understand.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
18. “No one knows the secrets of God’s relationship with man except God himself.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
19. “Love is the cause of existence and its end.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
20. “The human being is my witness that I am God and that God is me.” ― Ibn ‘Arabi
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Which days of the week are associated with the muses?
In Greek mythology, the Muses are typically associated with different areas of the arts and sciences, but they are not specifically associated with particular days of the week. However, there is a traditional Western association of the days of the week with planets and deities. If we were to loosely associate the Muses with the days of the week based on their domains and the traditional associations, it might look something like this:
Calliope (Epic Poetry) – Monday (associated with the Moon)
Clio (History) – Tuesday (associated with Mars, god of war and bravery)
Euterpe (Music) – Wednesday (associated with Mercury, messenger of the gods)
Thalia (Comedy) – Thursday (associated with Jupiter, king of the gods)
Melpomene (Tragedy) – Friday (associated with Venus, goddess of love and beauty)
Terpsichore (Dance) – Saturday (associated with Saturn, god of time)
Erato (Love Poetry) – Sunday (associated with the Sun)
Please note that this is a loose and modern interpretation and not a traditional association from ancient mythology.
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The terms “Nazarites” and “Nazoreans” can be confusing because they sound similar but refer to different concepts and groups.
Nazarites:
Nazarites were individuals in ancient Israel who took a vow to dedicate themselves to God for a specific period of time. This vow is described in Numbers 6:1-21 in the Hebrew Bible. Nazarites abstained from consuming alcohol and cutting their hair during the period of their vow.
Notable biblical figures who were Nazarites include Samson and Samuel.
The Nazarite vow was a personal commitment and was not associated with a specific religious sect or community.
Nazoreans (or Nazarenes):
The term “Nazarene” is used in the New Testament to describe Jesus of Nazareth (e.g., Matthew 2:23) and his followers.
The Nazoreans were a Jewish Christian sect that emerged in the early Christian church. They were followers of Jesus who maintained Jewish practices and beliefs.
James, the brother of Jesus, is sometimes associated with the Nazoreans, as they were centered in Jerusalem and were known for their strict adherence to Jewish law and rejection of the Pauline form of Christianity.
The Nazoreans are often identified with the Ebionites, although the relationship between the two groups is complex and subject to scholarly debate.
In summary, the Nazarites were individuals who took a specific religious vow in ancient Israel, while the Nazoreans were a Jewish Christian sect that emerged in the early Christian church, with James and Jesus being associated with this group. The Nazoreans maintained Jewish practices and beliefs while following the teachings of Jesus, whereas the Nazarites were not associated with a specific religious sect and were defined by their personal religious vow.
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The vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans has been a longstanding topic of debate among religious scholars. While the practice of not consuming animal products has been maintained for more than two thousand years, there is a general lack of consensus regarding its origin and development over time. This paper will explore the various theories that have been suggested by scholars regarding the vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans. Additionally, the most current peer-reviewed studies on the topic are analyzed in order to bring attention to both the complexities and benefits associated with the practice.
The first and most prominent theory regarding the origin of Nazorean vegetarianism dates back to ancient Judaism. This line of argument claims that Moses and the ancient Israelites, who were vegan by choice, inspired the Nazoreans and their choice to abstain from animal products. Other historical accounts suggest that the vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans was adopted from the Essenes, a Jewish sect known for their asceticism and dietary restrictions. While these theories are all viable options for consideration, more recent scholarship has focused on the ritual practices of the Nazoreans as an indication of their adherence to the vegetarian lifestyle.
Peer-reviewed studies have provided substantive evidence indicating that the vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans was related to a variety of rituals and ceremonies, including seasonal feasts and special occasions. For instance, one study found that during the Egyptian festivals of Pascha and Unleavened Bread, all animal products were abstained from and replaced with plant-based alternatives in celebration. During these times, the consumption of animal products was thought to be both a violation of the Nazoreans’ faith and an act of impurity. Scholars believe that this ritual abstinence provided an impetus for the development and maintenance of the Nazorean vegetarian lifestyle.
In addition to this ritualistic motivation, contemporary scholars have suggested that the provision of animal-free food was motivated by both ethical and health-related considerations. Existing evidence suggests that vegetarian diets positively benefit both emotions and physical health, and it is possible that the Nazoreans valued these dietary considerations. Furthermore, it has been argued that the features of the Nazorean diet, such as its inclusion of vegetables, legumes, and fruits, may have been seen as a means to promote harmony and balance within the community.
In conclusion, the vegetarian lifestyle of the Nazoreans is a complex phenomenon that has been the subject of numerous scholarly debates for more than two thousand years. While a variety of theories have been proposed regarding its origin, the most recently published peer-reviewed studies suggest that the practice has been influenced by a range of motivations, including ritualistic practices, diet considerations, and ethical considerations. As research on the topic continues, further insight into the relationship between the Nazorean vegetarian lifestyle and its social and cultural background may be revealed.
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If asked about ancient Greece or Rome, the average American conjures images of famous battles, myths, and Hollywood movies. However, overlooked by the majority of modern Americans is the hidden history of ancient Greek and Roman vegetarianism and the ageless debate upon what justice is due animals. Many people assume that the predominant omnivorous diet has been the accepted diet from past to present, but history tells a different story. In addition, past philosophers reveal a fierce debate not only over diet, but about the notion of justice and to whom it applies. The debate has not ended, but in order to know where the future of this debate should go, this past should be known by all participants.
Plato
Before diving into the teachings of the Greek and Roman philosophers, it is important that the Greek and Roman diet be understood. For the Greeks and Romans, cereals, vegetables, and fruit composed much of their diet. The meat that was consumed was usually fish, fowl, or pigs, which were the cheapest and most convenient animals people could kill for their flesh. However, only the wealthiest citizens could afford to eat large amounts of meat on a regular basis.
The first philosopher in the West to create a lasting vegetarian legacy was the Greek teacher Pythagoras. He was born on the island of Samos in 580 BCE and studied in what are now the countries of Greece, Egypt, and Iraq before establishing his school in southern Italy at the city of Croton. While Pythagoras is famous for his contributions to math, music, science, and philosophy, it is his philosophy that is of particular interest. He taught that all animals, not just humans, had souls, which were immortal and reincarnated after death. Since a human might become an animal at death, and an animal might become a human, Pythagoras believed that killing and eating non-human animals sullied the soul and prevented union with a higher form of reality. Additionally, he felt that eating meat was unhealthy and made humans wage war against one another. For these reasons, he abstained from meat and encouraged others to do likewise, perhaps making him one of the earliest campaigners for ethical vegetarianism.
The Greek philosopher Plato (428/427-348/347 BCE) was influenced by Pythagorean concepts but did not go as far as Pythagoras did. It is unclear exactly what his diet consisted of, but Plato’s teachings asserted only humans had immortal souls and that the universe was for human use. Yet, in The Republic, Plato’s character Socrates asserted that the ideal city was a vegetarian city on the grounds that meat was a luxury leading to decadence and war. Thus, to Plato, abstention from flesh is warranted out of a desire for peace and an avoidance of indulgent, excessive living.
Plato’s student Aristotle (384-322 BCE) also felt the universe was for human use and that only human souls were immortal. Additionally, he argued in favor of a hierarchy of beings in which plants occupied the lowest rung of the ladder and humans the highest. In this hierarchy, Aristotle argued that women were lesser compared to men and some humans were natural slaves. As for animals, as Norm Phelps in The Longest Strugglepoints out, Aristotle reasoned that there was no ethical obligation to animals because they were irrational. Colin Spencer, in The Heretic’s Feast, noted that Aristotle argued non-human animals could not manage themselves without human aid in spite of all evidence to the contrary. In short, Aristotle established many reasons used against giving proper justice to non-human and human animals alike.
Aristotle was not the only philosopher to advance some of these views. According to Spencer, the founder of Stoicism, Zeno (c. 335-c. 263 BCE), like Aristotle, argued that there was a hierarchy of beings with plants lowest and humans highest. Similarly, Spencer said Zeno declared animals undeserving of justice due to their inability to reason, but, unlike Aristotle, he sustained himself on a diet of bread, honey, and water. Zeno demonstrated that people have embraced a vegetarian diet for many reasons and while they may not be out of concern for animals, the vegetarian diet itself was seen as providing a wholesome way of life.
A contemporary of Zeno’s was the philosopher Epicurus (341-270 BCE). Epicurus agreed that the universe was for humans. Spencer said Epicurus differed from the above philosophers by arguing that souls cease to exist at death; thus, death was nothing to fear. Another core element to his philosophy was a belief in the goodness of pleasure and the evil of pain. He thought that desire caused pain, and human dependence on temporary pleasures deprived them of true pleasure. Because of this belief, Epicurus did not eat meat as it was a luxury that distracted people from a better life. However, he made no prohibition against eating flesh, which allowed the practice to continue among adopters of his creed. While he lack a stated prohibition, his personal example illustrated what he thought was the ideal way to live, and so, like Zeno, provided another historical support in favor of the vegetarian diet.
Arguing against Aristotle’s views on animals was Aristotle’s pupil and friend Theophrastus (c. 372-c. 287 BCE), a Greek biologist and philosopher. Theophrastus argued that killing animals for food was wasteful and morally wrong. Hypothesizing as to the origin of flesh eating, he argued that war must have forced humans to eat meat by ruining the crops that they otherwise would have eaten. Unlike his teacher, Theophrastus proclaimed that animal sacrifices angered the gods and turned humanity towards atheism. Clearly, religious arguments have long been used as motivation to pursue a vegetarian diet.
Preserving the legacy of Pythagoras was the poet and moralist Ovid (43 BCE-17 CE). Ovid was a Pythagorean-influenced Stoic, who was exiled to Tomis in 8 CE by the emperor Augustus. In his poem Metamorphoses, Ovid evoked the passionate pleas of Pythagoras for people to abandon animal sacrifice and abstain from eating flesh. These passages kept the memory of Pythagoras alive and served as testament to Ovid’s own vegetarian lifestyle.
Influenced by Pythagoras and Epicurus, the Roman philosopher Seneca (c. 4 BCE-65 CE) adopted a vegetarian diet. Spencer states that Seneca denounced the cruelty of the games used by Rome to distract the citizenry and challenged the decadence of his time. Seneca was forced to hide his vegetarianism for a time under the emperor Caligula due to Caligula’s distrust. Under the emperor Nero, his former student, Seneca was forced to commit suicide at age 60, due either to rumors in the court or Nero’s jealousy.
Another Greek philosopher who argued on behalf of animals was the biographer and philosopher Plutarch (46-c. 120 CE). Influenced by Pythagorean philosophy, Plutarch adopted a vegetarian diet and wrote several essays in favor of vegetarianism as well as arguing that animals were rational and deserving of consideration. In particular, his essay On the Eating of Flesh is noteworthy for some arguments familiar to today’s vegetarians, such as the inefficiency of the human digestive system to handle flesh or the fact that humans lack the claws and fangs necessary for to the satisfaction of a carnivorous appetite. For these reasons, Plutarch is truly noteworthy as one of the earliest advocates of animal issues.
After Plutarch, the Greek philosopher Plotinus (205-270 CE) combined Pythagoreanism, Platonism, and Stoicism into a school of philosophy called Neoplatonism. He taught that all animals feel pain and pleasure, not just humans. According to Jon Gregerson, author of Vegetarianism: A History, Plotinus believed in order for humans to unite with the Supreme Reality, humans had to treat all animals with compassion. Seeking to practice what he preached, Plotinus avoided medicine made from animals. He allowed for the wearing of wool and the use of animals for farm labor, but he mandated humane treatment.
Continuing the work of Plotinus was the great Phoenician author and philosopher Porphyry (c. 232-c. 305 CE). He argued with observational and historical evidence in defense of vegetarianism and the rationality of animals. According to Spencer, in On the Impropriety of Killing Living Beings for Food, Porphyry argued meat eating encouraged violence, demonstrated the ability of animals to reason, and argued that justice should be extended to them. Like Plutarch, Porphyry ranks as one of the greatest voices for early Western vegetarianism.
Vegetarianism and animal rights have a long history in Western civilization stretching to antiquity that is unknown or forgotten by many people today. What this hidden history teaches is that many Greeks and Romans survived without eating animal flesh or using animal products. Likewise, it teaches that arguments for and against animal rights are as ancient as Greek philosophy. It demonstrates that many of the same reasons for not eating flesh today are the same as those in the past whether out of spirituality, health, peace, or justice. Furthermore, the modern animal rights movement is built upon this past. Finally, this information presents important voices that should be considered in the debate on vegetarianism and animal rights.
—Nathan Morgan
Nathan Morgan, a 2010 graduate of Montana State University Billings, gave a paper on the topic of vegetarianism in the classical world at a recent animal welfare conference in Minneapolis.
Bust of Plato
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In the mystical realm of ancient India, Lord Shiva, the powerful and enigmatic deity, resided atop the sacred Mount Kailash. His matted hair held the flowing Ganges River, while his third eye radiated an all-seeing wisdom that pierced through the veils of reality.
One day, as the sun dipped below the horizon, casting a warm glow upon the land, Lord Shiva decided to visit the mortal world in disguise. He transformed himself into an old sage and descended to a bustling village.
In the village, the people were facing a dire drought, and their crops withered under the scorching sun. The villagers gathered around the old sage, seeking his guidance. With compassion in his eyes, Lord Shiva gently touched the parched earth. Miraculously, water began to bubble forth from the ground, quenching the land’s thirst.
The villagers were overjoyed and thanked the sage for his miraculous intervention. They insisted he stay, offering him food and shelter. Lord Shiva humbly accepted their hospitality and dwelled among them, imparting his wisdom and teaching them the ways of harmony and balance.
As time passed, the villagers learned the value of compassion, kindness, and unity. They started treating one another with respect, nurturing the land and its creatures. Crops flourished, and the village prospered.
One evening, as the villagers gathered around the sage to listen to his teachings, a young girl named Parvati approached. There was an air of innocence and curiosity about her. Lord Shiva noticed her keen interest in the lessons and smiled warmly.
Over the days that followed, Parvati continued to attend the sage’s teachings, and a deep bond formed between her and Lord Shiva. Unbeknownst to the villagers, Parvati was an incarnation of the divine goddess herself.
Impressed by her devotion and wisdom, Lord Shiva revealed his true form to Parvati, and their love blossomed. Their union symbolized the intertwining of the masculine and feminine energies, and their divine dance created a cosmic balance that brought harmony to the universe.
As years went by, Lord Shiva’s time among the villagers came to an end, and he returned to Mount Kailash with Parvati by his side. The village, now a thriving community, continued to live by the teachings they had learned from the sage.
And so, the legend of Lord Shiva’s visit to the mortal world lived on, a tale of compassion, transformation, and the enduring power of love that forever shaped the destiny of the village and the hearts of its people.
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In the realm of sacred knowing, the Gnostic Christ does dwell, A timeless presence, a divine spark, a truth no tongue can tell. Beyond the bounds of mortal flesh, transcendent and profound, In mystic whispers, hidden truths, eternal wisdom found.
His eyes ablaze with cosmic fire, a love that knows no end, He guides us through the labyrinth, our souls to mend and mend. A teacher of the inner path, he leads us to the light, Through trials and tribulations, he holds us through the night.
The Gnostic Christ, a mystic sage, his essence ever near, In sacred texts and secret lore, his message we revere. He unveils the illusion’s veil, the mysteries to explore, A guide to seek the hidden truths, the treasures to restore.
With gnosis as our lantern, we journey through the soul, A quest for deeper understanding, to make our spirits whole. In union with the divine spark, the Christ within us gleams, The Gnostic path of love and light, forever in our dreams.
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~Sakshi Zion
Life Coach, Entrepreneur, Social Media Expert, Musician, Yoga Teacher, World Traveler
